Eritrea: An Independent Nation
Eritrean history is immersed with conflict despite the countries unwavering desire for peace and independence. With prime access to the Red Sea, Eritrea has throughout history been treated merely as an asset by the rest of the world, rather than the cherished home to hard-working men, women and families that it is. Eritrea and its people have been bought and sold, occupied and administered since the 16th Century Ottoman Turks. Forced into conflicts, struggling and suffering the effects of war, fighting and waiting for their freedom. Now, Eritrea is taking its chance to manifest its dreams of peace and prosperity.
5th - 16th Century, BC
Eritrea’s story – one of historical occupation - starts with the arrival of the strongest empire in that era, the Ottoman Turks. From 1557, the Turks arrived on the coast of Eritrea and occupied the islands around and harbour of Massawa, on the Red Sea where Ottoman buildings can still be seen today.
1869 - 1885
For more than three and half centuries Massawa remains in the hands of the Turks or their vassal states. However, as time went on the Ottomans faced issues from other parts of their empire, and gradually their presence in Eritrea reduced until eventually, they had all gone. In the late 1800’s, the world starts to become more connected, trade links are established, and Eritrea is in a strategically favourable position on the Red Sea. The nearby Suez Canal develops in Egypt, and Massawa is directly accessible by Mediterranean traffic. The passing ships need secure and safe ports of call and Massawa can offer this.
Between 1869 and 1880, an Italian navigation company called Rubattino acquires the small coastal land in Aseb, further down the coast from Massawa, enjoying the riches made from the trade that flowed across the Red Sea. In 1882, the assets held by Rubattino were transferred to the Italian State and three years later, Italian Troops land in Aseb and Massawa. By 1885 the Italians officially made Asmara the capital city of Eritrea, and soon after it became a recognised colony of Italy.
Their migration inland is met with little to no resistance. The Ethiopian Emperor, John IV, has been embroiled in conflict from many enemies. Egyptian and Sudanese armies have both marched against him and in the south, an Ethiopian rival - Menelik - is waiting for his chance to claim the throne. These circumstances allowed the Italians to settle into the Northern Province of Eritrea with relative ease. There were expectations for John IV to move against them, but the emperor is killed during a battle from the pressing Sudanese army. The Italians settle in the Eritrean highlands, the area that is known today as Asmara, and Menelik seizes his chance and is crowned as the new emperor of Ethiopia.
1889 - 1897
Menelik’s first response to the newly homed Italians, is actually peaceful. An alliance is formed to Menelik’s advantage, the Uccialli Treaty signed in 1889 states that Menelik accepts the Italians right to Eritrea and that he cedes to them he territories from between Ethiopia on the south the Red Sea on the East and the Barka and Sahel on the North. In return the Italians supply Menelik with money and weapons.
However, the treaty contains a discrepancy. One of the articles states in Amharic that when dealing with international powers, Menelik may use the support of the Italian government. The Italian version states that it must use the governments support. On this basis, Italy declares to the world that Ethiopia is now an Italian protectorate. In 1890 Menelik dismisses this claim and in 1893 he rejects the treaty entirely. The Italian response to Menelik is military, and many believed the Italians would achieve success - that the discrepancy and ensuing conflict may have been planned all along. The Italian commander in Eritrea is instructed to achieve a decisive victory and leads an army of both Italians and Eritreans to the South. Menelik gathers his forces, amassing an army some 70,000 men strong and marches them north.
The two forces meet on the 1st of March 1896. The Italians suffer the most humiliating defeat ever experienced by a colonial power in Africa, known as the battle of Adwa.
Before the end of the year Italy has receded from its original position on the protectorate, accepting the full independence of Menelik’s Ethiopia. Menelik continues to accept the Italian presence in Eritrea. In 1896, a peace treaty is signed confirming the Mareb river as the border between Ethiopia and Eritrea.
1897 - 1941
Italy enjoys the luxuries that Eritrea provides them, the Red Sea provides riches and the Italians use these to develop the infrastructure of the country. Building roads, rail-lines and developing Asmara into a metropolis. The classic Italian architecture is still seen throughout Asmara today. In 1900, Asmara is officially named as Eritrea’s capital. However, the riches enjoyed by the Italians and ensuing development, quite unfairly, does little to improve the welfare of the Eritreans.
Italian presence in Eritrea grows quickly, Massawa is the main point of entry for Italian troops sent there to prepare for the impending second invasion of Ethiopia. In September 1935, an Italian force some 100,000 strong, left from Eritrea marching south once again. On the 3rd of October they attacked, and the second Italo-Ethiopian war began. Months of fighting passes, with terrible losses of life on both sides but eventually, Ethiopia cannot resist the Italian force any longer. The Italian army arrives in the Ethiopian capital of Addis Ababa on the 2nd of May 1936, forcing the then emperor Haile Selassie into exile in UK. On the 7th of May 1936, Italy formally annexes the territory of Ethiopia and the Italian King Victor Emmanuel III is named as the emperor of the newly formed Italian Province of East Africa, which is made up of Eritrea, Somalia and now Ethiopia.
Italy enters WWII as one of the Axis Powers in 1940. The Allied Powers view the The Italian Province of East Africa as key to defeating Italy and so in 1941 British forces enter Sudan and then on to Western Eritrea. After 5 months of fighting on the bottleneck mountains of Tinkulhas, the Italians are defeated in the Eritrean town of Keren, a location of strategic importance as it commands the route south through Asmara to the Ethiopian Highlands. After the victory, Asmara was formally occupied by the British on the 1st of April 1941.
British and Ethiopian forces achieve the successful defeat of the Italian forces in the province when they enter Addis Ababa in May. The exiled emperor, Haile Selassie returns to rule Ethiopia whilst the British took the responsibility as temporary caretakers of Eritrea. However, Selassie has his eyes on that which Ethiopia does not have, the Red Sea.
1945 - 1974
Whilst the Ottomans and Italians were in possession of Eritrea, Ethiopia had been landlocked. In the aftermath of the WWII, Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie seeks to assert dominance over the horn of Africa and believes that access to the Red Sea is of paramount importance. In 1945, Selassie meets with President of the U.S.A., Franklin Roosevelt, and highlights the importance that the presidents ally should have control over Eritrea, and ultimately the Red Sea. Roosevelt understands that having a naval base in Massawa would be a strategic military advantage and so America develops an agenda to support Selassie. In 1948-50 the United Nations begins to decide what to do with post-war Eritrea and Washington encourages Eritrea’s annexation to Ethiopia. While the British recommended the division of Eritrea, with Muslim to join Sudan and Christians to Ethiopia.
The decision from the UN in 1950 is that Eritrea shall be federated with Ethiopia from 1952, but as an autonomous federal province with its own elected government. In that year, the British Administration of Eritrea ends and the process of electing a government begins. The two largest parties were: The Unionist Party, founded in 1946 is closely linked to the Government in Ethiopia, and even has their financial backing. Secondly, The Muslim League, set up a year later in 1947 campaigns with one of its key promises being to restore Eritrean independence. In the election neither party manages to secure a majority and so Eritrea’s first government in this era is a coalition.
In an attempt to extinguish the efforts to make Eritrea independent again, Haile Selassie began to take extreme measures by interfering in Eritrean rule. Selassie ensured that all Muslims were removed from their government positions, teaching the Arabic language was stopped in schools, in 1958 there was an outright ban on any new political parties and another in 1959 on new trade unions. Ethiopian law was introduced into Eritrea and the Eritrean Government was renamed simply to the Eritrean Administration. In 1962 the Eritrean Administration and Ethiopian Government debated the prospect of a union although, by this point, it is widely understood to be a forgone conclusion.
In November of 1962 both sides vote unanimously for the union, and it is agreed that Eritrea’s federal status within Ethiopia shall be rescinded. Eritrea has now become a province within Ethiopia.
Meanwhile, an opposition has been growing. In 1960, after being exiled, Eritrea’s Muslim leaders form a rebel group known as the Eritrean Liberation Front, or ELF. Soon after the union is established between Eritrea and Ethiopia, the ELF grows - no longer being just a Muslim cause. It turns out that Selassie has also banned Tigrinya being taught in schools. Tigrinya is the language spoken by Eritrea’s largest ethnic group - the Tigringas. Selassie’s move prompts many of the Tigrinyan speaking men and women, most of whom practice a form of Christianity, to join the rebel movement. The group goes through many forms but eventually the rebels align behind a single vision of Eritrea, independent, free and prosperous. This marks the creation of The Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF).
1975 - 1991
Haile Selassie’s reign ended in 1975 after his death, and so too came the end of his regime. Now, Ethiopia was at odds with itself over the country’s future rule. This distraction gave the EPLF some time and space to consolidate and plan. Meanwhile, towns in Eritrea that were under the control of Ethiopia are released and in 1977 the EPLF begin marching towards Asmara and liberation.
However, there was another obstacle. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) rushed to claim Ethiopia for its own during the cold war, also believing that access to the Red Sea was strategically critical. The support from USSR to Mengstu prolonged the Eritrean struggle for freedom. In 1978 Mengistu was supplied with vast amounts of Soviet arms, making it easy to retake those recently freed towns in Eritrea. However, the EPLF - having had time to strengthen, manage to resist the Soviet-backed Ethiopian army by retreating to Sahle mountains of Nakfa town. Having control of most of the countryside, the EPLF keep Ethiopia in a state of continued and expensive battle on their northern border. In addition, Mengistu’s unrelenting socialist rule had become extremely unpopular, leading to an unstable Ethiopia in the mid 1980’s.
1988 spells the end for Mengistu as the EPLF has gathered enough strength to move south, past the Eritrean region of Nakfa, and into the northern highlands of Eritrea . In 1990, the EPLF inflict arguably the final blow to Mengistu by taking back Massawa and access to the Red Sea.
1991 comes and it has become clear that nothing will stop the EPLF forces from taking power. Mengistu flees the country and the EPLF helped Tigray People’s Liberation Front (TPLF) to set up a government known as The Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). A combination of Ethiopian rebel forces takes power under Meles, promising progressive change to Ethiopia. The Eritreans return home, having fought for and rightfully earned their independence.
1993 - 1998
In a referendum held in April 1993, 99.8% of Eritreans voted for independence, and so it was declared on April the 27th 1993 that Eritrea was to be its own autonomous country, free from the rule of any other. In May 1993, the secretary-general of the EPLF, Isaias Afwerki, becomes president of a transitional government. In 1994, the EPLF successfully transitions from a rebel group to the political party in office. They are renamed the Peoples Front for Democracy and Justice, or PDFJ,
Eritrea enters a time of peace, maintaining friendly relations with neighbour Ethiopia. Customs duties between the two countries are removed in 1995 and trade subsequently flourishes, the two countries are no longer at war and the vision of Eritrea that those rebels had all those years ago starts begins to grow around them.
But it didn’t last. In 1998, two key events increase tension between Eritrea and Ethiopia, ultimately leading the relationship between the neighbours to turn to violence, during this time, more than 75,000 Eritreans living in Ethiopia were sent home at a moments notice, losing their possessions and splitting up families. Once more Eritrea was thrust into war.
The first event occurred earlier in November, 1997, as Eritrea introduced its own currency - the nakfa. Eritrea had previously used the Ethiopian currency, Birr. The nakfa was to be of the same value as the birr and Eritrea intended for trade to continue uninterrupted. Ethiopia subsequently insisted that all transactions between the two countries should use hard foreign currency, even though this was disadvantageous to both economies. Whilst this is not cause to reignite war, it did increase political and economic tension. The second event occurs in May of 1998 and revolves around the border town of Badme. Both countries claimed ownership of Badme, and the dispute led to violent conflict between the two countries in which the losses on both sides were dear. The effects on both countries were devastating, but the war surprised many. Eritrean president Isaias and Ethiopian prime minister Meles both fought together as comrades to liberate their countries from tyranny, and had reunited again in war, only this time as enemies.
2000 - 2018
The war rages on for two long years, until finally in 2000 both countries sign a peace agreement, and the United Nations is brought in to resolve the dispute around Badme. The UN turns to the late 1800’s, the time of Italian colonisation and Menelik’s Ethiopia. Studying maps from this era, in 2002 the UN releases a final and binding decision. Badme is within the borders of Eritrea. The Ethiopian government rejects the decision and demands further negotiations, whereas Eritrea signs and accepts. For nearly two decades, the two countries are locked in a stalemate with occasional, small conflicts at the two countries borders.
This is how much of the next 16 years remains for the two countries, both in a state of “No War, No Peace”. But Eritrea and its people continue to endure, weathering the difficulties that the country has been left with and doing the all they can with the situation they have.
Then comes 2018. The people of Ethiopia go to elect a new government, and the result is that in April a new, young and progressive Ethiopian named Abiy Ahmed has been elected as their Prime Minister. Eritrea patiently observes from across the border, waiting to see where the relationship between these two countries will go next, hoping for a chance to finally and fully realise the vision that those rebels fought for. Two tense months pass with little contact between Eritrea and Ethiopia, but in June 2018 Abiy announces to the world that Ethiopia accepts the 2002 decision from the United Nations - this is the moment Eritrea has been waiting for, for 18 years.
Once again there is peace between the two countries, the economic relationship was restarted and continues to grow, passenger flights have resumed between countries and importantly, troops are being withdrawn from the border. Eritrean President Isaias and Ethiopian Prime Minister Abiy have a good relationship with each other, they have been seen walking together in the streets of Asmara, chatting and laughing.